Group Membership
- In-group - a social group to which one do belong
- Out-group - a social group to which one do not belong
- Generate US vs. THEM which generates:
- In-group bias (favoritism)
- Out-group derogation
Ex. Differers ways of dividing a group can lead to different biases
- Sexism, Racism, Ageism, Homophobia, Ethnocentrism/Xenophobia, Classism
(connection to elements of attitude)
Stereotyping
-
Stereotyping - one’s (negative) cognitive attitude about members of a group
- The belief that certain attributes are characteristics of members of a group (+ or -)
- The act of categorizing and thinking a person as a member of a group instead of an individual (pre-expectation)
- Constellation of Traits (physical picture, intelligence, morally … etc)
-
Connect to Schemas
- Make world more predictable
- Person schemas
- Schemas leads to pictures
Benevolent/Ambivalent Stereotypes
- Positive stereotypes, but can often be companied by negative ones
- Holding a positive stereotype can be seen to justify or balance out negative stereotypes
Positive Negative “Asians are good at math” “Asians are cold” “Women are warmer and have better social skills” “Women are not that capable”
Prejudice
- Prejudice - one’s (negative) emotional/affect attitude or feelings about members of a group
- Often measured by Feeling Thermometer (how warm or code you feel)
Explicit & Implicit
- In modern society it is not socially acceptable to express prejudice
- Creates conflict between what people really think and feel and what they express to others
- Modern Racism - rejection of explicitly racist beliefs while maintaining an enduring suspicion and animosity toward a group
Job Application Study
- Method
- All participants completed a survey about attitudes toward blacks scale
- Researchers asked white college students to evolute applicants both white and black to uni
- High mark and good application
- Poor mark and low application
- Mixed mark and mixed application quality
- Result
- Review about (1) or (3) clearly cut the bar applicants did not depend on racist attitudes
- Reviews about (2) mixed condition rated black applicants less favorably
Implicit Association Test
- Short in (IAT)
- Tests unconscious biases
- Assess strength of associations between concepts by measuring response latencies (faster means stronger association)
- First test: tab [L] for Black and Bad; [R] for White and Good
- Second test: tab [L] for White and Bad; [R] for Black and Good
- End: if performs faster in [1] then [2] means stronger association for black with bad
Ex. Implicit prejudice - people should be faster to associate black faces with negative words and white faces with positive words
Discrimination
- Discrimination - one’s (negative) behavior attitude directed toward members of a group
Blatant vs Subtle Discrimination
Blatant Discrimination Study
- Method
- Phone landlords for based on renting ads on street in Ontario.
- Researcher were separated into 3 groups
- Gay
- Lesbian
- Did not mention sexual orientation
- Result
- Landlords are more willing to rent to group [3]
Subtle Discrimination Study
-
Method
- Researcher went in to super store interviews
- Posed as Gay or Control (assumed heterosexual) by wearing different hats
- “Gay Pround” vs “Texan Proud”
- Researchers themselves did not know which hat they wear
- All posed researchers asked 4 questions
- 3 Measure of subtle form of discrimination
- Length of time manager and researcher talked
- Number of words spoken
- Number of signs of negativity
-
Result
Words Length Negativity Gay 111 3min 45sec 4.40 “Straight” 169 4min 4.01
Origin of out-group dislike
Economic Perspective
- Theory: Realistic Conflict Theory
Motivational Perspective
- There are psychological reasons (underlying motivations) for having intergroup conflict
- Prejudice can be easily passed on to the next generation
- Theory: Social Identity Theory
Minimal Group Paradigm
- Method
- Participants were asked preferences about art from artists they never heard of
- Researchers create groups based on arbitrary seemingly meaningless criteria (choice of artist)
- Actually ramdomly assigned
- Then they rated how they feel about the groups (1)
- Examining how member of these minimal groups are inclined to behave towards one another
- Result
- Participants liked their own group more
- Participants thought themselves and their own group members were better at the initial task
- Participants chose to maximized in-group profit (max difference between groups)
Blue Eyes Brown Eyes Experiment
- Method
- Separate the children into 2 groups (brown and blue)
- Told the kids that brown eyes are superior
- Result
- “Superior” kids started to act bossy, ignorant, unpleasant to “inferior” group. Do better at tests and grades
- “Inferior” kids started to be more isolated, got lower grades…
- Reference
Phil Zimbardo Jane Elliott
Cognitive Perspective
Just like how people categories color (a spectrum) to single colors. People can also categories to label people
- Stereotyping comes from a cognitive processes that people use to make categories
- Stereotypes are shortcuts
- Stereotypes can be more automatic (not controlled)
- This logic suggests that stereotypes are inevitable
- Human particularly likely to use stereotypes when they are overloaded or tired
- One
studyfound that students are more likely to stereotype at low points of their circadian rhythm
- Stereotypes conserve cognitive resources, but what is gained as efficiency is paid for by inaccuracy.
Factors that rise stereotyping errors
- Out-group Homogeneity - people assume more similarity for people in out-groups
- Paired Distinctiveness - the pairing of 2 distinctive events that stands out more because they occur together
Ex. 五班同学(张琳)骂老师 => 五班全体都骂老师
- Biased Information Processing - people aren’t evaluating info equally
Ex. Black person act violently is seem more aggressive then white person act violently Ex. Shooter Bias & Resume Whitening
- Self-fulfilling Prophecy ^1b8711
- Have an expectation about what another person is like can influence how people act toward that person
- Causes person to behave consistently with their original expectation
Stigmatization
What are some psychological consequences of being a member of a stigmatized group
- Negative emotions and self-views
- Greater feelings of stress, threat, hostility and lower self-esteem
- Attributional ambiguity
- It’s hard to know when you’re the subject of prejudice
- Race-Based Rejection Sensitivity - hyper-alertness, anxious expectation, rapid perception, and overreaction to rejection based on race
Stereotype Threat- Method
- Participants were asked to do a math test
- group were told that there is not gender differences in the test
- group were told that this test is in favor of men
- Result
- In group [A], men and women were performing equally well
- In group [B], men performed better, women performed worse
- Method
Action to change
YES!!!
Self-Affirmation
- The recognition and assertion of the existence and value of one’s individual self
- According to Social Identity Theory, if one can make themselves to feel better, then they don’t need to put down the out-group
Ex. Thinking about the good thing about yourself
Mutual Interdependence
- Superordinate Goal - having a universal goal to unite groups
- This is how the experimenter used to resolve the conflicts after week 2 in Robbers Cave Study
Contact Hypothesis
Intergroup Contact => Prejudice ReductionFive conditions for good/healthy contact
- Equal status
- Common goals
- No competition or intergroup cooperation
- Sanction by authority/social norms
- Contact much involve friendship
Jigsaw Classroom
- Method
- Kids are divided into groups with 6 each (balanced ethnicity, intelligence, gender…)
- Lesson materials were divided into 6 parts
- Each student is responsible in learning an individual part and teach to the group
- Result
- Decrease in prejudice and stereotyping
- Increase in liking for other members of the group
- Higher self-esteem
- Learn more
- Like School more
- Reference
- Elliot Aronson